Ora et labora: Labor transitions on Benedictine and Carmelite properties in colonial São Paulo

The study of African slavery in colonial Brazil has evolved in recent years and now firmly places slaves at the center of the discussion of bondage. Despite these advances, recent works on slavery tend to ignore the labor regimes which came before and after the period when African slavery dominated in Brazil. The intent of this study is to present an argument for continuity between different labor regimes in Brazil. To illustrate this point, this study examines farms owned by Carmelites and Benedictines in colonial São Paulo, Brazil, with a specific focus on labor force composition. By taking a micro-historical approach, this dissertation analyzes the lines between slavery and freedom in colonial São Paulo and argues that these lines are not always as clearly defined. The early chapters of the dissertation focus largely on Indian labor. Because of a series of contradictory laws throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the legal status of Indian laborers was constantly shifting. While the historiography of colonial Brazil often paints a picture of Indians as passive victims, this study examines several court cases that demonstrate Indian agency and use by Indians of the legal system to obtain their freedom. Other evidence used to develop this argument includes records of Indian villages from the state archive of São Paulo as well as manuscripts from four Benedictine archives and one Carmelite archive. In later chapters, this dissertation examines the introduction of African slave labor on Benedictine and Carmelite properties. These chapters focus on the daily operations of the rural properties owned by the religious orders, including personal relationships, family, and labor in these communities. In addition to manuscript census data, these chapters rely on the periodic reports sent from the Benedictines in Brazil to the motherhouse in Portugal, as well as wills and inventories left by the benefactors of both orders. These records provided rich information about the everyday operations of their estates throughout Brazil. The final section of the study examines the end of African slavery and the introduction of European immigrant labor. This process takes place during a period of strained relations between religious orders and the government. Documentation from the Carmelite archive on the management of urban and rural properties is essential for the development of this argument as too is the vast documentation left by early Italian immigrants to São Paulo.